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Technology In Age Of Exploration

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Use of noesis for practical goals

Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible manner.[1] The word technology may also mean the product of such an endeavor.[2] : 117 [3] The use of applied science is widely prevalent in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily life. Technologies include physical objects like utensils or machines and intangible tools such as software.

Many technological advancements have led to societal changes. The primeval known applied science is the stone tool, used in the prehistoric era,[4] followed past fire utilize, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language in the Ice Historic period.[5] The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age enabled wider travel and the creation of more circuitous machines.[6] Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet have lowered advice barriers and ushered in the noesis economic system.

While technology contributes to economical development and homo prosperity, it can likewise have negative impacts like pollution or resource depletion, or cause social harms like technological unemployment acquired past automation.[vii] Every bit a result, philosophical and political debates take arisen over the function and apply of technology, the ethics of technology, and the mitigation of engineering'due south potential downsides.[viii] Historical and contemporary movements like neo-Luddism and anarcho-primitivism criticize technology's pervasiveness,[9] while adherents to transhumanism and techno-progressivism actively back up technological change, viewing information technology equally emancipatory.[x] Many negative impacts of technology can be mitigated through technological innovations like renewable energy in transportation and industry,[11] genetically modified crops to accost soil depletion,[12] and space exploration to mitigate global catastrophic risks.[13]

Etymology

Technology is a term dating dorsum to the early on 17th century that meant "systematic treatment' (from Greek Τεχνολογία , from τέχνη 'art, craft' and -λογία , 'study, knowledge'). [fourteen] [15] It is predated in utilize by the Ancient Greek τέχνη, used to mean 'knowledge of how to brand things', which encompassed activities like architecture.[sixteen]

Starting in the 19th century, continental Europeans started using the terms Technik (High german) or technique (French) to refer to a 'manner of doing', which included all technical arts, such as dancing, navigation, or printing, whether or not they required tools or instruments.[2] : 114–115 At the time, Technologie (German and French) referred either to the academic discipline studying the "methods of arts and crafts", or to the political discipline "intended to legislate on the functions of the arts and crafts."[2] : 117 Since the distinction betwixt Technik and Technologie is absent-minded in English, both were translated as applied science. The term was previously uncommon in English and mostly referred to the academic discipline, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Engineering science.[17]

In the 20th century, equally a result of scientific progress and the Second Industrial Revolution, technology stopped being considered a distinct academic discipline and took on its current-day meaning: the systemic apply of noesis to practical ends.[2] : 119

History

Prehistoric

Tools were initially developed by hominids through observation and trial and mistake.[xviii] Around 2 Mya (one thousand thousand years agone), they learned to make the first stone tools by hammering flakes off a pebble, forming a sharp hand axe.[4] This practice was refined 75 kya (k years agone) into pressure flaking, enabling much finer work.[19]

The discovery of fire was described by Charles Darwin as "possibly the greatest ever made by human."[20] Archeological, dietary, and social evidence betoken to "continuous [human] burn-utilise" at least 1.v Mya.[21] Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, immune early on humans to cook their nutrient to increase its digestibility, improving its food value and broadening the number of foods that could be eaten.[22] The cooking hypothesis proposes that the power to melt promoted an increase in hominid encephalon size, though some researchers find the evidence inconclusive.[23] Archeological evidence of hearths was dated to 790 kya; researchers believe this is likely to have intensified human socialization and may have contributed to the emergence of language.[24] [25]

Other technological advances fabricated during the Paleolithic era include clothing and shelter.[26] No consensus exists on the approximate fourth dimension of adoption of either engineering science, but archeologists have establish archeological prove of clothing xc-120 kya[27] and shelter 450 kya.[26] As the Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more than sophisticated and more elaborate; as early as 380 kya, humans were amalgam temporary wood huts.[28] [29] Clothing, adapted from the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa around 200 kya, initially moving to Eurasia.[30] [31] [32]

Neolithic

An assortment of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools

The Neolithic Revolution (or First Agricultural Revolution) brought about an acceleration of technological innovation, and a consequent increase in social complexity.[33] The invention of the polished stone axe was a major advance that allowed large-scale forest clearance and farming.[34] This use of polished rock axes increased greatly in the Neolithic simply was originally used in the preceding Mesolithic in some areas such every bit Ireland.[35] Agriculture fed larger populations, and the transition to sedentism allowed for the simultaneous raising of more children, as infants no longer needed to be carried around by nomads. Additionally, children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily than they could participate in hunter-gatherer activities.[36] [37]

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an increment in labor specialization.[38] What triggered the progression from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and the starting time civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known; however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social structures and specialized labor, of merchandise and war among side by side cultures, and the demand for collective activeness to overcome ecology challenges such as irrigation, are all thought to accept played a role.[39]

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and provided, for the commencement time, the ability to smelt and forge gold, copper, silver, and pb  – native metals found in relatively pure form in nature.[40] The advantages of copper tools over rock, bone and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early on humans, and native copper was probably used from near the beginning of Neolithic times (about x ka).[41] Native copper does not naturally occur in large amounts, merely copper ores are quite common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to the discovery of alloys such as bronze and contumely (nearly 4,000 BCE). The starting time use of iron alloys such as steel dates to effectually 1,800 BCE.[42] [43]

Ancient

The bike was invented circa 4,000 BCE.

Afterwards harnessing burn down, humans discovered other forms of energy. The primeval known use of wind power is the sailing transport; the primeval tape of a ship under sheet is that of a Nile gunkhole dating to around vii,000 BCE.[44] From prehistoric times, Egyptians probable used the ability of the annual flooding of the Nile to irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it through purposely congenital irrigation channels and "take hold of" basins.[45] The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia used a complex system of canals and levees to divert water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for irrigation.[46]

Archaeologists estimate that the wheel was invented independently and concurrently in Mesopotamia (in nowadays-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture), and Cardinal Europe.[47] Time estimates range from v,500 to iii,000 BCE with virtually experts putting it closer to 4,000 BCE.[48] The oldest artifacts with drawings depicting wheeled carts date from near 3,500 BCE.[49] More recently, the oldest-known wooden bicycle in the globe was establish in the Ljubljana Marsh of Slovenia.[50]

The invention of the wheel revolutionized merchandise and war. It did not have long to observe that wheeled wagons could exist used to carry heavy loads. The aboriginal Sumerians used a potter'south wheel and may accept invented information technology.[51] A stone pottery wheel establish in the city-state of Ur dates to around 3,429 BCE,[52] and even older fragments of wheel-thrown pottery have been found in the same expanse.[52] Fast (rotary) potters' wheels enabled early mass product of pottery, just it was the apply of the wheel as a transformer of free energy (through water wheels, windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application of nonhuman power sources. The first two-wheeled carts were derived from travois[53] and were first used in Mesopotamia and Islamic republic of iran in effectually 3,000 BCE.[53]

The oldest known synthetic roadways are the rock-paved streets of the metropolis-state of Ur, dating to circa 4,000 BCE,[54] and timber roads leading through the swamps of Glastonbury, England, dating to around the aforementioned period.[54] The first long-distance road, which came into utilize around iii,500 BCE,[54] spanned 2,400 km from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Ocean,[54] but was not paved and was only partially maintained.[54] In around ii,000 BCE, the Minoans on the Greek island of Crete congenital a 50 km road leading from the palace of Gortyn on the due south side of the isle, through the mountains, to the palace of Knossos on the north side of the island.[54] Unlike the earlier road, the Minoan route was completely paved.[54]

Aboriginal Minoan individual homes had running water.[56] A bathtub virtually identical to modern ones was unearthed at the Palace of Knossos.[56] [57] Several Minoan private homes also had toilets, which could be flushed by pouring water down the drain.[56] The aboriginal Romans had many public flush toilets,[57] which emptied into an extensive sewage system.[57] The chief sewer in Rome was the Cloaca Maxima;[57] structure began on information technology in the sixth century BCE and it is yet in utilize today.[57]

The ancient Romans also had a circuitous system of aqueducts,[55] which were used to transport water across long distances.[55] The first Roman aqueduct was built in 312 BCE.[55] The eleventh and last ancient Roman aqueduct was built in 226 CE.[55] Put together, the Roman aqueducts extended over 450 km,[55] but less than 70 km of this was above ground and supported by arches.[55]

Pre-modernistic

Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with the introduction of silk production (in Asia and later Europe), the horse collar, and horseshoes. Simple machines (such equally the lever, the spiral, and the caster) were combined into more complicated tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills, and clocks.[58] A system of universities developed and spread scientific ideas and practices, including Oxford and Cambridge.[59]

The Renaissance era produced many innovations, including the printing printing (which facilitated the communication of knowledge). Engineering became increasingly influenced by scientific discipline, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement.[60]

Modernistic

The automobile revolutionized personal transportation.

Starting in the U.k. in the 18th century, the discovery of steam ability prepare off the Industrial Revolution, which saw broad-ranging technological discoveries, particularly in the areas of agronomics, manufacturing, mining, metallurgy, and ship, and the widespread application of the factory organisation.[61] This was followed a century later by the 2nd Industrial Revolution which led to rapid scientific discovery, standardization, and mass production. New technologies were developed, including sewage systems, electricity, lite bulbs, electric motors, railroads, automobiles, and airplanes. These technological advances led to pregnant developments in medicine, chemistry, physics, and engineering.[62] They were accompanied by consequential social change, with the introduction of skyscrapers accompanied by rapid urbanization.[63] Communication improved with the invention of the telegraph, the phone, the radio, and television.[64]

The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission in the Atomic Age led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were invented and later shifted from analog to digital in the Digital Revolution. Information engineering, especially optical fiber and optical amplifiers led to the birth of the Cyberspace, which ushered in the Information Historic period. The Space Age began with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, and afterward the launch of crewed missions to the moon in the 1960s. Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence have used radio telescopes to detect signs of technology utilize, or technosignatures, given off by alien civilizations. In medicine, new technologies were adult for diagnosis (CT, PET, and MRI scanning), treatment (like the dialysis motorcar, defibrillator, pacemaker, and a wide array of new pharmaceutical drugs), and research (similar interferon cloning and Deoxyribonucleic acid microarrays).[65]

Circuitous manufacturing and structure techniques and organizations are needed to brand and maintain more modern technologies, and unabridged industries have arisen to develop succeeding generations of increasingly more than complex tools. Modern engineering science increasingly relies on training and education – their designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require sophisticated general and specific grooming.[66] Moreover, these technologies have become so complex that unabridged fields have developed to support them, including engineering, medicine, and calculator science; and other fields have get more complex, such as structure, transportation, and architecture.

Impact

Many new technologies have had deep societal ramifications. Technologies take contributed to human welfare through increased prosperity, improved comfort and quality of life, and medical progress, just they tin also disrupt existing social hierarchies, cause pollution, and damage individuals or groups.

Recent years have brought nigh a rise in social media's cultural prominence, with potential repercussions on republic, and economic and social life. Early on, the internet was seen as a "liberation engineering science" that would democratize noesis, better access to pedagogy, and promote democracy. Modern research has turned to investigate the internet's downsides, including disinformation, polarization, hate speech, and propaganda.[67]

Since the 1970s, technology's impact on the environment has been criticized, leading to a surge in investment in solar, wind, and other forms of clean energy.

Since the invention of the wheel, technologies have helped increase humans' economical output. By automation has both substituted and complemented labor; machines replaced humans at some lower-paying jobs (for example in agriculture), but this was compensated by the creation of new, higher-paying jobs.[68] Studies take establish that computers did not create pregnant net technological unemployment. [69] Due to bogus intelligence being far more capable than computers, and notwithstanding being in its infancy, information technology is not known whether information technology will follow the same trend; the question has been debated at length among economists and policymakers. A 2017 survey found no clear consensus among economists on whether AI would increase long-term unemployment.[70]

Philosophy

Philosophy of technology is a co-operative of philosophy that studies the "practise of designing and creating artifacts", and the "nature of the things so created."[71] Information technology emerged as a discipline over the past two centuries, and has grown "considerably" since the 1970s.[8] The humanities philosophy of applied science is concerned with the "meaning of engineering science for, and its impact on, order and culture."[71]

Initially, technology was seen as an extension of the human organism that replicated or amplified bodily and mental faculties.[72] Marx framed it as a tool used past capitalists to oppress the proletariat, only believe technology would be a fundamentally liberating force one time it was "freed from societal deformations." Second-wave philosophers like Ortega later on shifted their focus from economics and politics to "daily life and living in a techno-material civilisation," arguing that engineering science could oppress "even the suburbia who were its ostensible masters and protectors." Third-stage philosophers like Don Ihde and Albert Borgmann represent a plow toward de-generalization and empiricism, and considered how humans can learn to live with engineering science.[eight]

Early scholarship on technology was split between two arguments: technological determinism, and social construction. Technological determinism is the idea that technologies cause unavoidable social changes.[73] : 95 It usually encompasses a related statement, technological autonomy, which asserts that technological progress follows a natural progresion and cannot be prevented.[74] Social constructivists contend that technologies follow no natural progression, and are shaped by cultural values, laws, politics, and economic incentives. Mod scholarship has shifted towards an assay of sociotechnical systems, "assemblages of things, people, practices, and meanings," looking at the value judgments that shape technology.[73]

Cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he chosen "technopolies," societies that are dominated past an ideology of technological and scientific progress to the detriment of other cultural practices, values, and world-views.[75] Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan suggest that technological society will inevitably deprive us of our freedom and psychological wellness.[76]

Ethics

The ideals of technology is an interdisciplinary subfield of ideals that analyzes technology'due south upstanding implications and explores ways to mitigate the potential negative impacts of new technologies. In that location is a broad range of ethical issues revolving around engineering, from specific areas of focus affecting professionals working with engineering to broader social, ethical, and legal issues concerning the role of technology in guild and everyday life.[77]

Prominent debates take surrounded genetically modified organisms, the use of robotic soldiers, algorithmic bias, and the issue of adjustment AI behavior with human values[78]

Technology ethics encompasses several primal fields. Bioethics looks at ethical issues surrounding biotechnologies and modern medicine, including cloning, human genetic engineering science, and stem cell research. Computer ethics focuses on issues related to calculating, including artificial intelligence and robotics. Cyberethics explores internet-related issues similar intellectual holding rights, privacy, and censorship. Nanoethics examines issues surrounding the amending of thing at the atomic and molecular level in various disciplines including computer scientific discipline, applied science, and biology. And engineering ideals deals with the professional standards of engineers, including software engineers and their moral responsibilities to the public.[79] Other fields of ethics have had to contend with applied science-related issues, including military ethics, media ethics, and educational ethics.

Futures studies

Futures studies is the systematic and interdisciplinary study of social and technological progress. It aims to quantitatively and qualitatively explore the range of plausible futures, and to comprise human values in the evolution of new technologies.[80] : 54 More than by and large, futures researchers are interested in improving "the liberty and welfare of humankind."[80] : 73 Information technology relies on a thorough quantitative and qualitative analysis of past and present technological trends, and attempts to rigorously extrapolate them into the future.[lxxx] Science fiction is often used as a source of ideas.[80] : 173 Futures research methodologies include survey inquiry, modeling, statistical assay, and reckoner simulations.[80] : 187

Existential chance

Existential risk researchers analyze risks that could atomic number 82 to human extinction or civilizational collapse, and look for ways to build resilience confronting them.[81] [13] Relevant research centers include the Cambridge Centre for the Written report of Existential Risk, and the Stanford Existential Risk Initiative.[82] Future technologies may contribute to the risks of artificial general intelligence, biological warfare, nuclear warfare, nanotechnology, anthropogenic climate change, global warming, or stable global totalitarianism, though technologies may also help us mitigate asteroid impacts and gamma-ray bursts.[83] In 2019 philosopher Nick Bostrom introduced the notion of a vulnerable world, "one in which at that place is some level of technological development at which civilization almost certainly gets devastated by default", citing the risks of a pandemic caused by bioterrorists, or an arms race triggered by the development of novel armaments and the loss of mutual bodacious destruction.[84] He invites policymakers to question the assumptions that technological progress is always beneficial, that scientific openness is always preferable, or that they tin can beget to wait until a dangerous applied science has been invented earlier they prepare mitigations.[84]

Emerging technologies

Experimental 3D press of muscle tissue

Emerging technologies are novel technologies whose development or practical applications are still largely unrealized. They include nanotechnology, biotechnology, robotics, 3D printing, blockchains, and artificial intelligence.

In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil claimed the next technological revolution would rest upon advances in genetics, nanotechnology, and robotics, with robotics being the about impactful of the iii.[85] Genetic technology will allow far greater command over human biological nature through a process called directed evolution. Some thinkers believe that this may shatter our sense of self, and take urged for renewed public fence exploring the issue more thoroughly;[86] others fear that directed evolution could lead to eugenics or extreme social inequality. Nanotechnology volition grant the states the ability to manipulate affair "at the molecular and atomic scale", which could permit usa to reshape ourselves and our environs in primal ways.[87] Nanobots could be used within the human being body to destroy cancer cells or form new body parts, blurring the line betwixt biological science and technology.[88] Autonomous robots accept undergone rapid progress, and are expected to replace humans at many dangerous tasks, including search and rescue, bomb disposal, firefighting, and state of war.[89]

Estimates on the advent of artificial general intelligence vary, just one-half of motorcar learning experts surveyed in 2018 believe that AI will "accomplish every job better and more cheaply" than humans past 2063, and automate all homo jobs past 2140.[90] This expected technological unemployment has led to calls for increased accent on computer science education and debates about UBI. Political science experts predict that this could lead to a ascension in extremism, while others run into information technology every bit an opportunity to conductor in a post-scarcity economy.

Movements

Appropriate engineering

Some segments of the 1960s hippie counterculture grew to dislike urban living and adult a preference for locally democratic, sustainable, and decentralized technology, termed advisable technology. This later influenced hacker civilisation and technopaganism.

Technological utopianism

Technological utopianism refers to the conventionalities that technological development is a moral good, which can and should bring about a utopia, that is, a society in which laws, governments, and social conditions serve the needs of all its citizens.[91] Examples of techno-utopian goals include postal service-scarcity economics, life extension, mind uploading, cryonics, and the cosmos of artificial superintelligence. Major techno-utopian movements include transhumanism and singularitarianism.

The transhumanism movement is founded upon the "continued development of human being life beyond its electric current human form" through science and technology, informed past "life-promoting principles and values."[92] The motion gained wider popularity in the early 21st century.[93]

Singularitarians believe that machine superintelligence volition "accelerate technological progress" by orders of magnitude and "create even more than intelligent entities ever faster", which may lead to a pace of societal and technological change that is "incomprehensible" to us. This event horizon is known as the technological singularity.[94]

Major figures of techno-utopianism include Ray Kurzweil and Nick Bostrom. Techno-utopianism has attracted both praise and criticism by progressive, religious, and conservative thinkers.[95]

Anti-technology backlash

Refer to caption

Technology's fundamental role in our lives has drawn concerns and backlash. The backlash against engineering is not a uniform movement and encompasses many heterogeneous ideologies.[96]

The earliest known defection against engineering science was Luddism, a pushback against early automation in textile production. Automation had resulted in a need for fewer workers, a procedure known as technological unemployment.

Between the 1970s and 1990s, American terrorist Ted Kaczynski carried out a series of bombings across America and published the Unabomber Manifesto denouncing applied science'due south negative impacts on nature and human freedom. The essay resonated with a big part of the American public.[97] It was partly inspired past Jacques Ellul's The Technological Club.

Some subcultures, like the off-the-grid motility, advocate a withdrawal from technology and a return to nature. The ecovillage movement seeks to reestablish harmony between technology and nature.[98]

Relation to science and engineering

Engineering is the process by which applied science is developed. It often requires problem-solving under strict constraints.[99] Technological development is "action-oriented", while scientific noesis is fundamentally explanatory.[100] Polish philosopher Henryk Skolimowski framed it similar and so: "science concerns itself with what is, technology with what is to be."[101] [102]

The direction of causality between scientific discovery and technological innovation has been debated by scientists, philosophers and policymakers.[103] Because innovation is often undertaken at the border of scientific knowledge, most technologies are not derived from scientific knowledge, merely instead from engineering, tinkering and chance.[104] : 217–240 For example, in the 1940s and 1950s, when knowledge of turbulent combustion or fluid dynamics was still rough, jet engines were invented through "running the device to devastation, analyzing what broke [...] and repeating the process."[99] Scientific explanations often follow technological developments rather than preceding them.[104] : 217–240 Many discoveries also arose from pure gamble, similar the discovery of penicillin as a result of accidental lab contagion.[105] Since the 1960s, the supposition that government funding of basic research would lead to the discovery of marketable technologies has lost brownie.[106] [107] Probabilist Nassim Taleb argues that national research programs that implement the notions of serendipity and convexity through frequent trial and error are more than likely to lead to useful innovations than inquiry that aims to achieve specific outcomes.[104] [108]

Despite this, mod technology is increasingly reliant on deep, domain-specific scientific knowledge. In 1979, an average of i in 3 patents granted in the U.S. cited the scientific literature; by 1989, this increased to an boilerplate of one commendation per patent. The average was skewed upward past patents related to the pharmaceutical industry, chemistry, and electronics.[109] A 2021 analysis shows that patents that are based on scientific discoveries are on average 26% more valuable than equivalent non-science-based patents.[110]

Other animal species

The use of basic technology is besides a feature of not-human animal species. Tool employ was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Man.[111] This view was supplanted after discovering evidence of tool use among chimpanzees and other primates,[112] dolphins,[113] and crows.[114] [115] For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees using bones foraging tools, pestles, levers, using leaves as sponges, and tree bark or vines every bit probes to fish termites.[116] Due west African chimpanzees use stone hammers and anvils for peachy nuts,[117] equally do capuchin monkeys of Boa Vista, Brazil.[118] Tool use is not the simply course of animal technology use; for example, beaver dams, built with wooden sticks or big stones, are a engineering science with "dramatic" impacts on river habitats and ecosystems.[119]

Popular culture

Man'due south human relationship with technology has been explored in science-fiction literature, for instance in Brave New World, A Clockwork Orange, Nineteen Lxxx-4, Isaac Asimov'southward essays, and movies similar Minority Report, Total Retrieve, Gattaca, and Inception. It has spawned the dystopian and futuristic cyberpunk genre, which juxtaposes futuristic applied science with societal collapse, dystopia or decay.[120] Notable cyberpunk works include William Gibson's Neuromancer novel, and movies like Blade Runner, and The Matrix.

See also

  • Outline of technology
  • History of technology
  • Philosophy of engineering
  • Ideals of technology
  • Criticism of technology
  • Technology and society
  • Productivity-improving technologies
  • Technological singularity
  • Futures studies

References

Citations

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Technology In Age Of Exploration,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology

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